Results

This study sought to determine whether embedding journalists with military units during combat produces different television news reports and, if so, the nature of such differences. In addition, this study investigates whether there are any differences in news stories during the initial invasion and reports more than a year later during the occupation. This study is a follow up to a previous study conducted in early 2004.

Hypotheses 1 through 4 addressed differences of depiction in tone, trustworthiness, framing, organizational commitment, happiness, and contentment. To assess this study’s predictions, a one-way MANOVA was computed for journalist status (embed/non-embed) on all dependent variables, which included: global tone toward military, trustworthiness of individual troops, episodic versus thematic framing, organizational commitment, and the emotions happiness and contentment. Significant differences were found across dependent variables. Wilks’ ? F6,272 = 50.41, p < .001.

Hypothesis 1 predicted that non-embed coverage would be less positive about the military and its personnel. The univariate tests indicated significant main effects on the dependent measures of global tone toward military, F(1, 277)=103.16, p<.001, partial eta2 .27, and trustworthiness of individual troops, F(1, 277)=112.89, p<.001, partial eta2 .29. (Refer to Table 1).
As Table 1 reveals, the pattern of means indicated that embedded reports were more positive about the military and its personnel. Therefore Hypothesis 1 was supported.

Hypothesis 2 predicted embedded journalists will produce television reports that depict stronger organizational commitment. The one-way ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for reporter status on organizational commitment, F(1, 277)=133.59, p<.001, partial eta2 .325. Table 1 illustrates that embedded stories revealed stronger organizational commitment, thus supporting Hypothesis 2.

Hypothesis 3 predicted that embedded journalists would produce more episodic stories than non-embedded journalists. The results supported this prediction. The one-way ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for reporter status on episodic framing F(1, 277)=194.07, p<.001, partial eta2 .41. Embedded reports contained more episodic frames than non-embedded reports.

Hypothesis 4 predicted that embedded reporters would produce more affective stories, as well as stories that demonstrated more positive relational cues. Hypothesis 4 was partially supported. The only significant difference was found on the emotion of happiness, (F(1, 277)=6.76, p<.01, partial eta2 .02); results were marginally significant for contentment (F(1, 277)=2.83, p<.10, partial eta2 .01). The pattern of means indicated that embedded reports embodied more positive emotional content, thus supporting Hypothesis 4

An additional omnibus test, a one-way MANOVA, was computed for journalist status on relational communication variables (separate analysis was required because relational cues were only assessed in reports in which military personnel were interviewed). This was designed to test the prediction that embedded reporters would produce stories with more positive relational cues. This prediction fell short of statistical significance: Wilks’ ? F3,76 = 1.23, p > .10. Furthermore, there were no significant univariate differences involving the dependent variables of immediacy, similarity, and receptivity. These results failed to support Hypothesis 1.

Research question 1 asks if there were differences between embed reporting at the time of occupation and invasion. A one-way MANOVA was computed for stage of conflict (invasion/occupation) on the dependent variables: global tone toward military, trustworthiness of individual troops, episodic versus thematic framing, and the emotion contentment to determine if there was any difference in reporting. Significant differences were found across dependent variables: Wilks’ ? F6,272 = 10.30, p < .001. Subsequent univariate tests indicated a significant difference on the dependent variables of tone (attitude) F1,277 = 8.65, p < .01, partial eta2 .03; framing, F1,277 = 11.02, p <.01, partial eta2 .04; and contentment F1,277 = 16.05, p < .001, partial eta2 .06. The pattern of means depicted in Table 2 indicate that reporting of the invasion phase revealed more positive tone, more organizational commitment, and more use of episodic frames than reporting of the occupation phase.

Research question 2 asks if there were any differences among network newscasts on the dependent variables. Another one-way MANOVA was computed for network (ABC, CBS, NBC, and CNN) on the dependent variables: global tone toward military, trustworthiness of individual troops, episodic versus thematic framing, and organizational commitment. Significant differences were found on each dependent variable. Wilks’ ? F12,719 = 2.46, p < .01. Subsequent univariable tests indicated a significant difference on the dependent variable of tone (attitude) F3,275 = 3.89, p < .01, partial eta2 .04; trustworthiness of troops F3,275 = 7.56, p < .001, partial eta2 .08; framing, F1,277 = 4.05, p <.01, partial eta2 .04; and organizational commitment F1,277 = 16.05, p < .001, partial eta2 .06. Subsequent Scheffe post-hoc tests were computed to examine the patterns of means. They revealed significant differences between CBS and CNN. CBS coverage depicted a more favorable tone toward the military, t140 = 6.79, p < .01; more trustworthiness in troops, t140 = 9.47, p < .01; was more episodic, t140 = 6.90, p < .01; and displayed higher levels of organizational commitment, t140 = 7.36, p < .01. There was also a significant difference in the coverage of CBS and ABC on the dependent variable organizational commitment, t140 = 6.60, p < .01. CBS reports displayed stronger organizational commitment.