Module 3 Learning Theories and Principles for DL

Section 1: Review of Learning Module 2 The objectives of this week's lesson are to: Compare key learning theories for DL. Explain seven learning design principles for effective DL. Describe cognitive load theory for DL. Expected time for learning activity: 90 minutes  Reviews of Learning Theories for Distance Learning Three Learning Theories for DL Behaviorism As founded in the early decades of the twenties century (Watson, 1924), behaviorism assumes three fundamental beliefs about learning: (1) learning should focus on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes, (2) the environment in which learner is surrounded influences the learner's learning behavior, (3) and learning is maximized when contiguity (close in time between learning events) and reinforcement play central roles during the course of individual learning process. From these perspectives, behavioral theorists define learning as a matter of the acquisition of new behavior. Cognitivism Cognitivism is concerned about internal mental states for learning to occur. Cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information. Constructivism Constructivists' view assumes learners interpret and construct their surrounding reality based upon their perceptions of experiences. From this assumption, individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events (Jonasson, 1991). Constructivism claims that the purpose of learning is to construct individual's own meaning from a learning, but not just memorize the right answers. Therefore, within constructivists orientation, the learning process has taken through understanding concepts, not isolated facts. Influence of Learning Theories on DL The Influence of Behaviorism on Distance Learning Apply behavioral taxonomy of learning objectives in developing learning content and activities for distance learning. Bloom and his colleagues' taxonomy is a good example to compose the content of distance learning in different levels. The taxonomy includes six levels of learning objectives: Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Another good example of instructional model using the behavioral orientation is developing instructional sequencing based on the following steps: Prepare units. Develop behavioral objectives. Plan instructional sequences. Include pretest and posttest for each unit. Materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioral objectives. The Influence of Cognitivism on Distance Learning With greater concern on the internal mental processes of human mind, the instructional approach would use such processes of cognitive learning (knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval) in developing learning content and sequencing learning activities (analyze a task, break it down into smaller steps or chunks, and use that information to develop instruction). Other examples of instructional principles using cognitivistic orientation include: Advance organizers Mnemonic devices Metaphors Chunking into meaningful parts Careful organization of instructional materials from simple to complex The Influence of Constructivism on Distance Learning Constructivism promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for individual learner. Some instructional examples using principles of constructivism include: Provide multiple representations of reality Present authentic tasks - contextualize Provide real-world, case-based learning environments (not predetermined instructional sequences) Foster reflective practice Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition Four Key Theorists of Distance Learning 1. Conditions of Learning Theory (Gagne) Types of Learning Content Verbal information Intellectual skills Cognitive strategies Motor skills Attitudes Hierarchy of Learning Stimulus recognition Response generation Procedure following Use of terminology Discriminations Concept formation Rule application Problem solving Applying Gagne's Nine Instructional Events for Distance Learning Gain attention - show a variety of computer generated triangles Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?" Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle Guide learning - show example of how to create equilateral Elicit performance - ask students to create 5 different examples Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect Assess performance - provide scores and remediation Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilateral triangles. 2. Social Cognitive Development (Vygotsky) Vygotsky's theory of social cognitive development posits that social and interpersonal interactions play a key role in the facilitation of learning and development of cognition. Stages of Proximal Development Stage 1 - assistance provided by more capable others (coaches, experts, teachers) Stage 2 - assistance by self Stage 3 - internalization automatization (fossilization) Stage 4 - de-automatization: recursiveness through prior stages Vygotsky also contends that instruction is most efficient when students engage in activities within a supportive learning environment and when they receive appropriate guidance that is mediated by tools such as: cognitive strategies, a mentor, peers, computers, printed materials, or any instrument that organizes and provides information for the learner. Instructors' key role is organizing dynamic support to help students complete a task near the upper end of their zone of proximal development and then to systematically withdrawing this support as they move to higher levels of confidence. Applying Vygotsky's Idea for Developing Distance Learning Gillani and Relan (1997) proposed an instructional design model having four phases: Phase 1: advance organizer Phase 2: modeling Phase 3: exploring Phase 4: generating 3. Constructivist Theory (Bruner) According to Bruner, instructors have three roles in distance learning: Encourage students to construct hypotheses, makes decisions, and discover principles by themselves. Translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Organize it in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned. Applying Bruner's Idea for Developing Distance Learning Bruner's constructivist theory can be applied to distance learning by applying the following principles: Attract, hold and focus attention so students can learn principles: To draw attention, use novelty, differences, motion, changes in intensity or brightness, the presence of moderate complexity, and lean and focussed displays. To increase attention and maintain learner focus, create moderate uncertainty about what is about to happen next or what the eventual outcome of a presentation will be. To sustain attention, maintain change and variety in the learning environment. To focus attention, teach learners to interpret certain cues such as specific colors, sounds, symbols, fonts, screen or display arrangement, underlining, etc. To focus attention, use captions in pictures, graphics and illustrations. Improve retention by sequencing screens and presenting related materials together. Provide structural cues to avoid information vertigo - Arrange information in a non-threatening manner through techniques such as chunking, overviews, advance organizers, maps, and a fixed-display format. 4. Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Bandura's social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. The processes underlying observational learning can be described in five phases: Attention (catching learners' cognitive attention) Retention (cognitive organization and motor rehearsal) Motor reproduction (physical movement, self-observation of reproduction, and accuracy of feedback) Motivation (external and self reinforcement) Observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, and past reinforcement). Applying Bruner's Idea for Developing Distance Learning Teach students how to model cognitive processes as well as behaviors using real-world problems. Jonassen (1998) defines two types of modeling: behavioral modeling of the overt performance and cognitive modeling of the covert cognitive processes. Behavioral modeling demonstrates how to perform the activities" while cognitive modeling "articulates the reasoning that learners should use while engaged in performing the activity. Provide similar examples and comparisons to aid perception and recall. Objects, ideas, or events displayed together in space and time are often stored together in memory and grouped together in recall. This is the Law of proximity in perception and contiguity in memory. (Fahy 1999). Use show me buttons when learners need help. Hyperlink to this button a visual or animated example of the desired performance. Use worked examples as a method for modeling problem solving. Worked examples include a description of how problems are solved by an experienced problem solver. Use repetition with variety. Repeating a variety of examples or problems with solutions is more effective for long-term retention than rote or verbatim reproduction. Paraphrasing, rephrasing, and reworking are good examples. Issues in Developing Distance Learning Design Considerations Systematic design and development: In designing effective distance instruction, one must consider not only the goals, needs, and characteristics of teachers and students, but also content requirements and technical constraints. Interactivity: Successful distance education systems involve interactivity between teacher and students, between students and the learning environment, and among students themselves, as well as active learning in the classroom. Active learning: As active participants in the learning process, students affect the manner in which they deal with the material to be learned. Learners must have a sense of ownership of the learning goals. They must be both willing and able to receive instructional messages. Visual imagery: Reliance on exciting visuals may distort the curriculum by focusing students' attention on the entertaining and provocative features of the presentation rather than encouraging thoughtful analysis of their underlying meaning. Instructor training: Teachers need training in instructional message design, strategies for delivering instruction on-camera, methods of diversifying types of presentation, selecting various mixes of student-teacher activities and interactions, choosing situations and examples which are relevant to their students, and assessing the level of learning by distant students. Methods and Strategies Media-based challenges: Effective distance learning requires extensive preparation, as well as adapting traditional teaching strategies to a new learning environment which often lacks visual cues. Effective distance learning also requires students, teacher, and the site facilitator must function as a team. Modes of learning: Another important variable in learning effectiveness is the preference of the student for a particular mode of learning such as cooperative, competitive, or individualized. Effective distance learning relies on knowledge-building accomplished through student-initiated interactions and reflections, in real-time in class, and in delayed-time using an electronic bulletin board system (BBS). Distance Learners, Teachers, and Facilitators Aims and goals: According to research adult learners have a wide variety of reasons for pursuing learning at a distance. As a result, they gain not only new knowledge but also new social skills, including the ability to communicate and collaborate with widely dispersed colleagues and peers whom they may never have seen. Learner support: Students need support when they are learning about new technology, regardless of their level of classroom experience. They also need to be able to communicate with support staff and/or other students who have gone through this process themselves, and who are competent to advise them and serve as role models. The teacher: Teachers are responsible for knowing the subject matter, preparing lesson plans and producing an instructional module or course, selecting support materials, delivering the instruction effectively on-camera, determining the degree of student interaction, and selecting the form of distance evaluation or assessment. The site facilitator: The site facilitator's responsibilities are to motivate and encourage the remote site students, keep up their enthusiasm, and maintain discipline in the classroom. S/he is also responsible for smooth running of equipment, helping students with interaction, handing out, collecting, and grading papers, guiding collaborative groups who are working with manipulatives, answering questions when necessary, and assisting the studio teacher when asked. Technology Adoption and Management Issues Technology adoption: Purchasing and maintaining appropriate equipment, and training teachers and facilitators to use it effectively, are necessary conditions, but are not sufficient in themselves to assure a school district of an excellent distance education program. Successful technological innovations must take into consideration the social and political climate of the school, and must also reinforce the authority of the teacher, rather than undermine it. Management and policy issues: Distance education changes the learning relationship from the common, centralized school model to a more decentralized, flexible model. It also reverses social dynamics by bringing school to students, rather than students to school. Scheduling and cost/benefit tradeoffs: Implementation of distance education is resource-intensive. Sufficient money and time must be allocated to deliver whatever courseware was promised. The cost/benefit of technology can vary significantly with the specific characteristics of schools and students. In many cases, while technology often improves educational quality, it is not necessarily cost-efficient.     Next